I found the solution to the problem—probably by chance. Thanks, internet!
I started checking the folders on the computer (refer to the first image from my previous post), and in the C: drive, there was a folder named “drivers”—I assume it was created during the previous Windows installation. I looked inside, and since I had already seen online that the issue could be related to missing Wi-Fi drivers, I searched there. Sure enough, the Wi-Fi driver I needed was there.
(Make sure to check the option “Hide drivers that are not compatible” when selecting the driver.)
I selected it, installed it, and now I’m installing Windows so far without any issues.
